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<title>NASA Pathfinder</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">NASA Pathfinder</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Mars roving probe, see <a href="Mars_Pathfinder" title="Mars Pathfinder">Mars Pathfinder</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox ib-aircraft vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Pathfinder<br>Pathfinder Plus</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"></span> <div class="ib-aircraft-caption">Pathfinder in flight over Hawaii</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">General information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data">Remote controlled <a href="Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">UAV</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Aerospace_manufacturer" title="Aerospace manufacturer">Manufacturer</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="AeroVironment" title="AeroVironment">AeroVironment</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Primary user</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="NASA_ERAST_Program" title="NASA ERAST Program">NASA ERAST Program</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Number built</th><td class="infobox-data">1</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Developed into</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="NASA_Centurion" title="NASA Centurion">NASA Centurion</a><br><a href="NASA_Helios" class="mw-redirect" title="NASA Helios">NASA Helios</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The <b>NASA Pathfinder</b> and <b>NASA Pathfinder Plus</b> were the first two aircraft developed as part of an evolutionary series of <a href="Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar</a>- and <a href="Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel-cell</a>-system-powered <a href="Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned aerial vehicles</a> (UAVs). <a href="AeroVironment" title="AeroVironment">AeroVironment, Inc.</a> developed the vehicles under NASA's <a href="NASA_ERAST_Program" title="NASA ERAST Program">Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology</a> (ERAST) program. They were built to develop the technologies that would allow long-term, high-altitude aircraft to serve as <a href="Atmospheric_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric satellite">atmospheric satellites</a>, to perform atmospheric research tasks as well as serve as communications platforms.<sup id="cite_ref-heliosfact_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heliosfact-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were developed further into the <a href="NASA_Centurion" title="NASA Centurion">NASA Centurion</a> and <a href="NASA_Helios" class="mw-redirect" title="NASA Helios">NASA Helios</a> aircraft.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathfinder">Pathfinder</h2></div>

<p>AeroVironment initiated its development of full-scale solar-powered aircraft with the <a href="Gossamer_Penguin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gossamer Penguin">Gossamer Penguin</a> and <a href="Solar_Challenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Challenger">Solar Challenger</a> vehicles in the late 1970s and early 1980s, following the pioneering work of <a href="AstroFlight" title="AstroFlight">Robert Boucher</a>, who built the first solar-powered flying models in 1974. As part of the ERAST program, AeroVironment built four generations of long endurance unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) under the leadership of Ray Morgan, the first of which was the Pathfinder.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3></div>

<p>In 1983, AeroVironment obtained funding from an unspecified US government agency to secretly investigate a <a href="Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">UAV</a> concept designated "High Altitude Solar" or HALSOL. The HALSOL prototype first flew in June 1983. Nine HALSOL flights took place at <a href="Area_51" title="Area 51">Groom Lake</a> in Nevada. The flights were conducted using radio control and battery power, as the aircraft had not been fitted with solar cells. HALSOL's aerodynamics were validated, but the investigation led to the conclusion that neither <a href="Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> cell nor energy storage technology were mature enough to make the idea practical for the time being, and so HALSOL was put into storage.<sup id="cite_ref-goebel12_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goebel12-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1993, after ten years in storage, the aircraft was brought back to flight status for a brief mission by the <a href="Ballistic_Missile_Defense_Organization" title="Ballistic Missile Defense Organization">Ballistic Missile Defense Organization</a> (BMDO). With the addition of small solar arrays, five low-altitude checkout flights were flown under the BMDO program at NASA Dryden in the fall of 1993 and early 1994 on a combination of solar and battery power.<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1994, the aircraft was transferred to the <a href="NASA_ERAST_Program" title="NASA ERAST Program">NASA ERAST Program</a> to develop science platform aircraft technology. It was renamed "Pathfinder" because it was "literally the pathfinder for a future fleet of solar-powered aircraft that could stay airborne for weeks or months on scientific sampling and imaging missions".<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of flights were planned to demonstrate that an extremely light and fragile aircraft structure with a very high <a href="Aspect_ratio" title="Aspect ratio">aspect ratio</a> (the ratio between the wingspan and the wing chord) can successfully take-off and land from an airport and can be flown to extremely high altitudes (between 50,000 feet (15,000 m) and 80,000 feet (24,000 m)) propelled by the power of the sun. In addition, the ERAST Project also wanted to determine the feasibility of such a UAV for carrying instruments used in a variety of scientific studies.<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>On October 21, 1995, the aircraft's fragility was aptly demonstrated when it was severely damaged in a hangar accident, but was subsequently rebuilt.<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aircraft_description">Aircraft description</h3></div>

<p>Pathfinder was powered by eight electric motors — later reduced to six — which were first powered by batteries. It had a wing span of 98.4 feet (30.0 m). Two underwing pods contain the landing gear, batteries, triple-redundant instrumentation system, and dual-redundant flight control computers. By the time the aircraft was adopted into the ERAST project in late 1993, solar cells were being added, eventually covering the entire upper surface of the wing.<sup id="cite_ref-heliosfact_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heliosfact-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The solar arrays provide power for the aircraft's electric motors, avionics, communications and other electronic systems. Pathfinder also had a backup battery system that can provide power for between two and five hours to allow limited-duration flight after dark.<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Pathfinder flies at an airspeed of only 15 miles per hour (24 km/h) to 25 miles per hour (40 km/h). Pitch control is maintained by the use of tiny elevators on the trailing edge of the wing Turn and yaw control is accomplished by slowing down or speeding up the motors on the outboard sections of the wing.<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flight_testing_and_records">Flight testing and records</h3></div>

<p>Major science activities of Pathfinder missions have included detection of forest nutrient status, forest regrowth after damage caused by <a href="Hurricane_Iniki" title="Hurricane Iniki">Hurricane Iniki</a> in 1992, sediment/algal concentrations in coastal waters and assessment of coral reef health. Science activities are coordinated by the NASA <a href="Ames_Research_Center" title="Ames Research Center">Ames Research Center</a> and include researchers at the <a href="University_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii">University of Hawaii</a> and the <a href="University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a>. Pathfinder flight tested two ERAST-developed scientific instruments, a high spectral resolution Digital Array Scanned Interferometer (DASI) and a high spatial resolution Airborne Real-Time Imaging System (ARTIS), both developed at Ames. These flights were conducted at altitudes between 22,000 feet (6,700 m) and 49,000 feet (15,000 m) in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>On September 11, 1995, Pathfinder set an unofficial altitude record for solar powered aircraft of 50,000 feet (15,000 m) during a 12-hour flight from <a href="Dryden_Flight_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Dryden Flight Research Center">NASA Dryden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-heliosfact_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heliosfact-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This and subsequent records claimed by NASA for Pathfinder remain unofficial, as they were not validated by the <a href="F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_A%C3%A9ronautique_Internationale" title="Fédération Aéronautique Internationale">FAI</a>, the internationally recognized aviation world record sanctioning body. The <a href="National_Aeronautic_Association" title="National Aeronautic Association">National Aeronautic Association</a> presented the NASA-industry ERAST team with an award for one of the "10 Most Memorable Record Flights" of 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>After further modifications, the aircraft was moved to the <a href="U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a>'s <a href="Pacific_Missile_Range_Facility" title="Pacific Missile Range Facility">Pacific Missile Range Facility</a> (PMRF) on the Hawaiian island of <a href="Kauai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kauai">Kauai</a>. On one of seven flights there in the spring and summer of 1997, Pathfinder raised the altitude record for solar-powered aircraft — as well as propeller-driven aircraft — to 71,530 feet (21,800 m) on July 7, 1997. During those flights, Pathfinder carried two lightweight imaging instruments to learn more about the island's terrestrial and coastal ecosystems, demonstrating the potential of such aircraft as platforms for scientific research.<sup id="cite_ref-heliosfact_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heliosfact-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathfinder-Plus">Pathfinder-Plus</h2></div>

<p>During 1998, the Pathfinder was modified into the longer-winged Pathfinder-Plus configuration. It used four of the five sections from the original Pathfinder wing, but substituted a new 44 feet (13 m) long center wing section that incorporated a high-altitude airfoil designed for the follow-on Centurion/Helios. The new section was twice as long as the original, and increased the overall wingspan of the craft from 98.4 feet (30.0 m) to 121 feet (37 m). The new center section was topped by more-efficient silicon solar cells developed by <a href="SunPower" title="SunPower">SunPower Corporation</a> of <a href="Sunnyvale%2C_California" title="Sunnyvale, California">Sunnyvale, California</a>, which could convert almost 19 percent of the solar energy they receive to useful electrical energy to power the craft's motors, avionics and communication systems. That compared with about 14 percent efficiency for the older solar arrays that cover most of the surface of the mid- and outer wing panels from the original Pathfinder. Maximum potential power was boosted from about 7,500 watts on Pathfinder to about 12,500 watts on Pathfinder-Plus. The number of electric motors was increased to eight, and the motors used were more powerful units, designed for the follow-on aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Pathfinder-Plus development flights flown at PMRF in the summer of 1998 validated power, aerodynamic, and systems technologies for its successor, the Centurion. On August 6, 1998, Pathfinder-Plus, piloted by Derek Lisoski, proved its design by raising the national altitude record to 80,201 feet (24,445 m) for solar-powered and propeller-driven aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-heliosfact_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heliosfact-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atmospheric_satellite_tests">Atmospheric satellite tests</h3></div>

<p>In July 2002, Pathfinder-Plus carried commercial communications relay equipment developed by Skytower, Inc., a subsidiary of <a href="AeroVironment" title="AeroVironment">AeroVironment</a>, in a test of using the aircraft as a broadcast platform. Skytower, in partnership with NASA and the <a href="Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications">Japan Ministry of Telecommunications</a>, tested the concept of an "<a href="Atmospheric_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric satellite">atmospheric satellite</a>" by successfully using the aircraft to transmit both an <a href="High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">HDTV</a> signal as well as an <a href="IMT-2000" title="IMT-2000">IMT-2000</a> wireless communications signal from 65,000 feet (20,000 m), giving the aircraft the equivalence of a 12 miles (19 km) tall transmitter tower. Because of the aircraft's high lookdown angle, the transmission utilized only one watt of power, or 1/10,000 of the power required by a terrestrial tower to provide the same signal.<sup id="cite_ref-skytower1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skytower1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Stuart Hindle, Vice President of Strategy & Business Development for SkyTower, "SkyTower platforms are basically geostationary satellites without the time delay." Further, Hindle said that such platforms flying in the stratosphere, as opposed to actual satellites, can achieve much higher levels of frequency use. "A single SkyTower platform can provide over 1,000 times the fixed broadband local access capacity of a geostationary satellite using the same frequency band, on a bytes per second per square mile basis."<sup id="cite_ref-spacecom1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spacecom1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Ray Morgan, president of AeroVironment, has described the concept as, "What we're trying to do is create what we call an 'atmospheric satellite,' which operates and performs many of the functions as a satellite would do in space, but does it very close in, in the atmosphere"<sup id="cite_ref-cnn1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specifications">Specifications</h2></div>

<caption>Specifications<sup id="cite_ref-heliosfact_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heliosfact-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mishapreport_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mishapreport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-centurionfactold2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-centurionfactold2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</caption>

<th>Pathfinder</th>

<th>Pathfinder-Plus</th>

<th>Centurion</th>

<th>Helios HP01</th>

<th>Helios HP03

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Length ft(m)</td>

<td>16.5 (5.0)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Chord ft(m)</td>

<td colspan="5">8 (2.4)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Wingspan ft(m)</td>

<td colspan="2">247 (75.3)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Aspect ratio</td>

<td colspan="2">30.9 to 1

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Glide ratio</td>

<td>?

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Airspeed kts(km/h)</td>

<td>?

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Max altitude ft(m)</td>

<td>65,000 (19,812)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Empty Wt lb(kg)</td>

<td>?

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Max. weight lb(kg)</td>

<td>2,320 (1,052)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Payload lb(kg)</td>

<td>?

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Engines</td>

<td colspan="5">electric, 2 hp (1.5 kW) each

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>No. of engines</td>

<td>10

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Solar pwr output (kW)</td>

<td>18.5

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Supplemental power</td>

<td>batteries</td>

<td>Li batteries</td>

<td>Li batteries, fuel cell

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<ul><li><a href="Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_unmanned_aerial_vehicles" title="History of unmanned aerial vehicles">History of unmanned aerial vehicles</a></li>

<li><a href="Regenerative_fuel_cell" title="Regenerative fuel cell">Regenerative fuel cell</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_Centurion" title="NASA Centurion">NASA Centurion</a> (First flight 10 November 1998)</li>

<li>NASA/AeroVironment <a href="Helios_Prototype" class="mw-redirect" title="Helios Prototype">Helios Prototype</a> (First flight 8 September 1999)</li>

<li>QinetiQ/<a href="Airbus_Zephyr" title="Airbus Zephyr">Airbus Zephyr</a> (First flight in 2008)</li>

<li><a href="Facebook_Aquila" title="Facebook Aquila">Facebook Aquila</a> (First flight 28 June 2016)</li>

<li>SoftBank/AeroVironment <a href="HAPSMobile" title="HAPSMobile">HAPSMobile</a> (First flight 11 September 2019)</li>

<li><a href="BAE_Systems_PHASA-35" title="BAE Systems PHASA-35">BAE Systems PHASA-35</a> (First flight 17 February 2020)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<p><i>This article contains material that originally came from the web article <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110902194407/http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav.html">"Unmanned Aerial Vehicles"</a> by Greg Goebel, which exists in the Public Domain.</i>

<span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> This article incorporates <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/policies.html#Guidelines">public domain material</a> from websites or documents of the <a href="National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Aeronautics and Space Administration">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a>.

</p>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-068-DFRC.html">"NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Helios Prototype"</a>. <i><a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></i>. 13 August 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230419154840/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-068-DFRC.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-04-19.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-goebel12-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-goebel12_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090211170130/http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav_12.html">Goebel, Greg, "The Prehistory of Endurance UAVs", <i>Unmanned Aerial Vehicles</i>, chapter 12. Exists in the public domain.</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pathfinderfactold2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold2_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030810185046/http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Newsroom/FactSheets/FS-034-DFRC.html">NASA Pathfinder fact sheet, archived at archive.org</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pathfinderfactold-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pathfinderfactold_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030620174825/http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Research/Erast/pathfinder.html">NASA Pathfinder fact sheet, archived at archive.org</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naa.aero/html/records/search_resultsguest.cfm?recordNumber=1855">NAA record database</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120212230625/http://www.naa.aero/html/records/search_resultsguest.cfm?recordNumber=1855">Archived</a> 2012-02-12 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-skytower1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-skytower1_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewire.com/display.cfm/Wire_ID/1253">"SkyTower Successfully Tests World's First Commercial Telecom Applications from More Than 65,000 feet (20,000 m) in the Stratosphere", <i>Ewire</i>, July 22, 2002, accessed September 11, 2008</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20061120200950/http://www.ewire.com/display.cfm/Wire_ID/1253">Archived</a> November 20, 2006, at <a href="Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-spacecom1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-spacecom1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/skytower_020724.html">David, Leonard, "Stratospheric Platform Serves As Satellite" Space.com, July 24, 2002, accessed September 11, 2008</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515202902/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/skytower_020724.html">Archived</a> May 15, 2008, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-cnn1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cnn1_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/TECH/space/9808/07/solar.plane/index.html">Knapp, Don. "'Atmospheric satellites' could cut the cost of communications", CNN, August 11, 1998, accessed September 13, 2008</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-mishapreport-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mishapreport_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/64317main_helios.pdf">Investigation of the Helios Prototype Aircraft Mishap</a> – Volume 1, T.E. Noll et al., January 2004</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-centurionfactold2-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-centurionfactold2_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030628143415/http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Newsroom/FactSheets/FS-056-DFRC.html">NASA Centurion Fact Sheet archived at archive.org</a></span>

</li>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<ul><li>"Photovoltaic Finesse: Better Solar Cells—with Wires Where the Sun Don't Shine", an article by Daniel Cho on page thirty-three of the September, 2003 issue of <i><a href="Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:AeroVironment_Pathfinder" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:AeroVironment Pathfinder">AeroVironment Pathfinder</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/history/pastprojects/Helios/index.html">NASA's Helios Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080807041010/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/history/pastprojects/Helios/index.html">Archived</a> 2008-08-07 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forkids/home/helios.html">Helios for kids</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121019211931/http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forkids/home/helios.html">Archived</a> 2012-10-19 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sketchup.google.com/3dwarehouse/details?mid=c2fff02f9bfb875ae355c690027e5c19">Helios model by DesignsbyALX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110519123154/http://sketchup.google.com/3dwarehouse/details?mid=c2fff02f9bfb875ae355c690027e5c19">Archived</a> 2011-05-19 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/July2000/3781.htm">"3G Tested at 65,000 feet (20,000 m) in the stratosphere" 3G news release July 23, 2002</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/08/980819081740.htm"><i>Science Daily</i> article on Pathfinder Plus altitude record</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090619043251/http://www.airport-int.com/categories/nasa-research/solarpowered-plane-successfully-relays-hdtvtelecom-over-kauai.asp">Telecom relay achievements at <i>Airport International</i></a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515202902/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/skytower_020724.html">Space.com article</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216181332/http://thefutureofthings.com/articles/51/solar-uav-to-set-a-new-world-record.html?addComment">History of solar powered UAVs at <i>The Future of Things</i></a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airspacemag.com/flight-today/in_the_museum-jj07.html">Pathfinder Plus at NASM</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130202181349/http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=9060">NASA-AeroVironment contract for followon projects</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_pasa/is_200107/ai_666840911">Helios record attempt article</a></li>

<li>NASA image collections:

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/photo/Pathfinder/HTML/index.html">NASA Pathfinder</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130415000115/http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/photo/Pathfinder/HTML/index.html">Archived</a> 2013-04-15 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990223203330/http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/photo/Pathfinder-Plus/index.html">NASA Pathfinder Plus</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19970605020616/http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/photo/Centurion/index.html">NASA Centurion</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000303022202/http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/photo/Helios/Large/index.html">NASA Helios Prototype</a></li></ul></li></ul>

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</style><div id="AeroVironment_aircraft65" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="AeroVironment" title="AeroVironment">AeroVironment</a> aircraft</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human-powered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="MacCready_Gossamer_Albatross" title="MacCready Gossamer Albatross">MacCready <i>Gossamer Albatross</i></a></li>

<li><a href="MacCready_Gossamer_Condor" title="MacCready Gossamer Condor">MacCready <i>Gossamer Condor</i></a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Solar-powered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Piloted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="MacCready_Gossamer_Penguin" title="MacCready Gossamer Penguin">MacCready <i>Gossamer Penguin</i></a></li>

<li><a href="MacCready_Solar_Challenger" title="MacCready Solar Challenger">MacCready Solar Challenger</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em"><a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> UAVs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="NASA_Centurion" title="NASA Centurion">NASA Centurion</a></li>

<li><a href="AeroVironment_Helios_Prototype" title="AeroVironment Helios Prototype">NASA Helios</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Pathfinder-Plus">NASA Pathfinder Plus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military UAVs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="AeroVironment_Broomstick" title="AeroVironment Broomstick">Broomstick</a></li>

<li><a href="AeroVironment_FQM-151_Pointer" title="AeroVironment FQM-151 Pointer">FQM-151 Pointer</a></li>

<li><a href="AeroVironment_Global_Observer" title="AeroVironment Global Observer">Global Observer</a></li>

<li><a href="AeroVironment_Nano_Hummingbird" title="AeroVironment Nano Hummingbird">Nano Hummingbird</a></li>

<li><a href="AeroVironment_RQ-11_Raven" title="AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven">RQ-11 Raven</a></li>

<li><a href="AeroVironment_RQ-14_Dragon_Eye" title="AeroVironment RQ-14 Dragon Eye">RQ-14 Dragon Eye</a></li>

<li><a href="AeroVironment_SkyTote" title="AeroVironment SkyTote">SkyTote</a></li>

<li><a href="AeroVironment_Switchblade" title="AeroVironment Switchblade">Switchblade</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="NASA578" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="NASA578" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">Policy</a> and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">History<br>(<a href="Creation_of_NASA" title="Creation of NASA">creation</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act" title="National Aeronautics and Space Act">National Aeronautics and Space Act</a> (1958)</li>

<li><a href="Space_Task_Group" title="Space Task Group">Space Task Group</a> (1958)</li>

<li><a href="Thomas_O._Paine#National_Commission_on_Space" title="Thomas O. Paine">Paine</a> (1986)</li>

<li><a href="Rogers_Commission_Report" title="Rogers Commission Report">Rogers</a> (1986)</li>

<li><a href="Space_Exploration_Initiative" title="Space Exploration Initiative">Space Exploration Initiative</a> (1989)</li>

<li><a href="Augustine_Committee" title="Augustine Committee">Augustine</a> (1990)</li>

<li><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Clinton_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">U.S. National Space Policy</a> (1996)</li>

<li><a href="Commission_on_the_Future_of_the_United_States_Aerospace_Industry" title="Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry">CFUSAI</a> (2002)</li>

<li><a href="Vision_for_Space_Exploration" title="Vision for Space Exploration">Vision for Space Exploration</a> (2004)</li>

<li><a href="President's_Commission_on_Implementation_of_United_States_Space_Exploration_Policy" title="President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy">Aldridge</a> (2004)</li>

<li><a href="Review_of_United_States_Human_Space_Flight_Plans_Committee" title="Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee">Augustine</a> (2009)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_administrators_and_deputy_administrators_of_NASA" class="mw-redirect" title="List of administrators and deputy administrators of NASA">Administrator and Deputy Administrator</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_Chief_Scientist" title="NASA Chief Scientist">Chief Scientist</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_Astronaut_Corps" title="NASA Astronaut Corps">Astronaut Corps</a>

<ul><li><a href="Astronaut_ranks_and_positions" title="Astronaut ranks and positions">Ranks and positions</a></li>

<li><a href="Chief_of_the_Astronaut_Office" title="Chief of the Astronaut Office">Chief</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Budget_of_NASA" title="Budget of NASA">Budget</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_research" title="NASA research">NASA research</a>

<ul><li><a href="NASA_spinoff_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="NASA spinoff technologies">spinoff technologies</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="NASA_Social" title="NASA Social">NASA Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Launch_Services_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch Services Program">Launch Services Program</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercury_Control_Center" title="Mercury Control Center">Mercury Control Center</a></li>

<li><a href="Manned_Space_Flight_Network" title="Manned Space Flight Network">Manned Space Flight Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a>

<ul><li><a href="Vehicle_Assembly_Building" title="Vehicle Assembly Building">Vehicle Assembly Building</a></li>

<li><a href="Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39">Launch Complex 39</a></li>

<li><a href="Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_48" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 48">Launch Complex 48</a></li>

<li><a href="Launch_Control_Center" title="Launch Control Center">Launch Control Center</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_and_Checkout_Building" title="Operations and Checkout Building">Operations and Checkout Building</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Johnson_Space_Center" title="Johnson Space Center">Johnson Space Center</a>

<ul><li><a href="Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center" title="Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center">Mission Control</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_Sample_Laboratory_Facility" title="Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility">Lunar Sample Laboratory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Science_Mission_Directorate" title="Science Mission Directorate">Science Mission Directorate</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a><br>programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">X-15</a> (<a href="Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">suborbital</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a></li>

<li><a href="Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a> (with the <a href="Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li>

<li><a href="Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–<i>Mir</i></a> (with <a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Constellation_program" title="Constellation program">Constellation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="International_Space_Station_programme" title="International Space Station programme">International Space Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services" title="Commercial Orbital Transportation Services">Commercial Orbital Transportation Services</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_Crew_Program" title="Commercial Crew Program">Commercial Crew</a></li>

<li><a href="Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a></li>

<li><a href="Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_Gateway" title="Lunar Gateway">Lunar Gateway</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic</a> programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hitchhiker_Program" title="Hitchhiker Program">Hitchhiker</a></li>

<li><a href="Mariner_program" title="Mariner program">Mariner</a></li>

<li><a href="Mariner_Mark_II" title="Mariner Mark II">Mariner Mark II</a></li>

<li><a href="MESUR" title="MESUR">MESUR</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars_Surveyor_'98" title="Mars Surveyor '98">Mars Surveyor '98</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Millennium_Program" title="New Millennium Program">New Millennium</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_Orbiter_program" title="Lunar Orbiter program">Lunar Orbiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer</a></li>

<li><a href="Planetary_Observer_program" title="Planetary Observer program">Planetary Observer</a></li>

<li><a href="Ranger_program" title="Ranger program">Ranger</a></li>

<li><a href="Surveyor_program" title="Surveyor program">Surveyor</a></li>

<li><a href="Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Prometheus" title="Project Prometheus">Project Prometheus</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars_Exploration_Program" title="Mars Exploration Program">Mars Exploration</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rover</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Living_With_a_Star" title="Living With a Star">Living With a Star</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_Precursor_Robotic_Program" title="Lunar Precursor Robotic Program">Lunar Precursor Robotic Program</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_Observing_System" title="Earth Observing System">Earth Observing System</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Observatories_program" title="Great Observatories program">Great Observatories program</a></li>

<li><a href="Explorers_Program" title="Explorers Program">Explorers</a></li>

<li><a href="Voyager_program" title="Voyager program">Voyager</a></li>

<li><a href="Discovery_Program" title="Discovery Program">Discovery</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Frontiers_program" title="New Frontiers program">New Frontiers</a></li>

<li><a href="Solar_Terrestrial_Probes_program" title="Solar Terrestrial Probes program">Solar Terrestrial Probes</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services" title="Commercial Lunar Payload Services">Commercial Lunar Payload Services</a></li>

<li><a href="Small_Innovative_Missions_for_Planetary_Exploration" title="Small Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration">SIMPLEx</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Individual featured<br> <a href="List_of_NASA_missions" title="List of NASA missions">missions</a><br>(human and robotic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercury-Redstone_3" title="Mercury-Redstone 3">Mercury 3</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercury-Atlas_6" title="Mercury-Atlas 6">Mercury-Atlas 6</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Magellan_(spacecraft)" title="Magellan (spacecraft)">Magellan</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Pioneer_10" title="Pioneer 10">Pioneer 10</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Pioneer_11" title="Pioneer 11">Pioneer 11</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Galileo_project" title="Galileo project"><i>Galileo</i></a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Timeline of Galileo (spacecraft)">timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="GALEX" title="GALEX">GALEX</a></li>

<li><a href="GRAIL" title="GRAIL">GRAIL</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></li>

<li><a href="Spitzer_Space_Telescope" title="Spitzer Space Telescope">Spitzer Space Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="Sojourner_(rover)" title="Sojourner (rover)"><i>Sojourner</i> rover</a></li>

<li><a href="Spirit_(rover)" title="Spirit (rover)"><i>Spirit</i> rover</a></li>

<li><a href="LADEE" title="LADEE">LADEE</a></li>

<li><i><a href="MESSENGER" title="MESSENGER">MESSENGER</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Aquarius_(SAC-D_instrument)" title="Aquarius (SAC-D instrument)">Aquarius</a></li>

<li><a href="Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens"><i>Cassini</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Kepler_space_telescope" title="Kepler space telescope">Kepler space telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)"><i>Opportunity</i> rover</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_Opportunity" title="Timeline of Opportunity">timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_surface_features_of_Mars_visited_by_Spirit_and_Opportunity" title="List of surface features of Mars visited by Spirit and Opportunity">observed</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ramaty_High_Energy_Solar_Spectroscopic_Imager" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager">RHESSI</a></li>

<li><i><a href="InSight" title="InSight">InSight</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Ingenuity_(helicopter)" title="Ingenuity (helicopter)"><i>Ingenuity</i> helicopter</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Ingenuity_flights" title="List of Ingenuity flights">flights</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currently<br>operating</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="2001_Mars_Odyssey" title="2001 Mars Odyssey">2001 Mars Odyssey</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a></i></li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope"><i>Hubble</i> Space Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="Chandra_X-ray_Observatory" title="Chandra X-ray Observatory"><i>Chandra</i> X-ray Observatory</a></li>

<li><a href="Neil_Gehrels_Swift_Observatory" title="Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory"><i>Swift</i></a></li>

<li><a href="THEMIS" title="THEMIS">THEMIS</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rover</a></li>

<li><a href="Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)"><i>Curiosity</i> rover</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory">timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Lunar_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter">Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">Mars Science Laboratory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory">timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="NuSTAR" title="NuSTAR">NuSTAR</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Voyager_1" title="Voyager 1">Voyager 1</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="MAVEN" title="MAVEN">MAVEN</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="OSIRIS-REx" title="OSIRIS-REx">OSIRIS-APEX</a></i></li>

<ul><li><a href="Perseverance_(rover)" title="Perseverance (rover)"><i>Perseverance</i> rover</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_Mars_2020" title="Timeline of Mars 2020">timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope"><i>James Webb</i> Space Telescope</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_the_James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="Timeline of the James Webb Space Telescope">timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Europa_Clipper" title="Europa Clipper">Europa Clipper</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Future</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="NISAR_(satellite)" title="NISAR (satellite)">NISAR</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Nancy_Grace_Roman_Space_Telescope" title="Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope"><i>Nancy Grace Roman</i> Space Telescope</a></li>

<li><i><a href="DAVINCI" title="DAVINCI">DAVINCI</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="VERITAS_(spacecraft)" title="VERITAS (spacecraft)">VERITAS</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Space_Communications_and_Navigation_Program" title="Space Communications and Navigation Program">Communications<br>and navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Near_Earth_Network" title="Near Earth Network">Near Earth Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Network" title="Space Network">Space Network</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_Deep_Space_Network" title="NASA Deep Space Network">Deep Space Network</a> (<a href="Goldstone_Deep_Space_Communications_Complex" title="Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex">Goldstone</a></li>

<li><a href="Madrid_Deep_Space_Communications_Complex" title="Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex">Madrid</a></li>

<li><a href="Canberra_Deep_Space_Communication_Complex" title="Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex">Canberra</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Flight_Operations_Facility" title="Space Flight Operations Facility">Space Flight Operations Facility</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Deep_Space_Atomic_Clock" title="Deep Space Atomic Clock">Deep Space Atomic Clock</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">NASA lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronauts</a>

<li><a href="List_of_Gemini_astronauts" title="List of Gemini astronauts">Gemini astronauts</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Apollo_astronauts" title="List of Apollo astronauts">Apollo astronauts</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews" title="List of Space Shuttle crews">Space Shuttle crews</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_NASA_aircraft" title="List of NASA aircraft">NASA aircraft</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_NASA_missions" title="List of NASA missions">NASA missions</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_uncrewed_NASA_missions" title="List of uncrewed NASA missions">uncrewed missions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Apollo_missions" title="List of Apollo missions">Apollo missions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" title="List of Space Shuttle missions">Space Shuttle missions</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_rockets_of_the_United_States" title="List of rockets of the United States">United States rockets</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_NASA_cancellations" title="List of NASA cancellations">NASA cancellations</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_NASA_cameras_on_spacecraft" title="List of NASA cameras on spacecraft">NASA cameras on spacecraft</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">NASA images<br>and artwork</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Earthrise" title="Earthrise">Earthrise</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Blue_Marble" title="The Blue Marble">The Blue Marble</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Family_Portrait_(Voyager)" title="Family Portrait (Voyager)">Family Portrait</a></i>

<li><i><a href="Pillars_of_Creation" title="Pillars of Creation">Pillars of Creation</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Mystic_Mountain" title="Mystic Mountain">Mystic Mountain</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Family_Portrait_(MESSENGER)" title="Family Portrait (MESSENGER)"><i>Solar System Family Portrait</i></a></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Day_the_Earth_Smiled" title="The Day the Earth Smiled">The Day the Earth Smiled</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Fallen_Astronaut" title="Fallen Astronaut">Fallen Astronaut</a></i></li>

<li><a href="List_of_deep_fields" title="List of deep fields">Deep fields</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_plaque" title="Lunar plaque">Lunar plaques</a></li>

<li><a href="Pioneer_plaque" title="Pioneer plaque">Pioneer plaques</a></li>

<li><a href="Voyager_Golden_Record" title="Voyager Golden Record">Voyager Golden Record</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo_11_goodwill_messages" title="Apollo 11 goodwill messages">Apollo 11 goodwill messages</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_insignia" title="NASA insignia">NASA insignia</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_space-flown_Gemini_and_Apollo_medallions" title="NASA space-flown Gemini and Apollo medallions">Gemini and Apollo medallions</a></li>

<li><a href="Mission_patch" title="Mission patch">Mission patches</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronomy_Picture_of_the_Day" title="Astronomy Picture of the Day">Astronomy Picture of the Day</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Hubble_Space_Telescope_anniversary_images" title="List of Hubble Space Telescope anniversary images">Hubble Space Telescope anniversary images</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>"<a href="We_choose_to_go_to_the_Moon" title="We choose to go to the Moon">We choose to go to the Moon</a>"</li>

<li><a href="Apollo_8_Genesis_reading" title="Apollo 8 Genesis reading">Apollo 8 Genesis reading</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo_15_postal_covers_incident" title="Apollo 15 postal covers incident">Apollo 15 postal covers incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo_Lunar_Module" title="Apollo Lunar Module">Apollo Lunar Module</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Mirror_Memorial" title="Space Mirror Memorial">Space Mirror Memorial</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Astronaut_Monument" class="mw-redirect" title="The Astronaut Monument">The Astronaut Monument</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_sample_displays" title="Lunar sample displays">Lunar sample displays</a>

<ul><li><a href="Moon_rock" title="Moon rock">Moon rocks</a></li>

<li><a href="Stolen_and_missing_Moon_rocks" title="Stolen and missing Moon rocks">stolen or missing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Astronaut_Hall_of_Fame" title="United States Astronaut Hall of Fame">U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S._space_exploration_history_on_U.S._stamps" title="U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps">Space program on U.S. stamps</a></li>

<li><a href="Fe%2C_Fi%2C_Fo%2C_Fum%2C_and_Phooey" title="Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey">Apollo 17 Moon mice</a></li>

<li><a href="Monkeys_and_apes_in_space#United_States" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Other primates in space</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_International_Space_Apps_Challenge" title="NASA International Space Apps Challenge">NASA International Space Apps Challenge</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronauts_Day" title="Astronauts Day">Astronauts Day</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Astronaut_Day" title="National Astronaut Day">National Astronaut Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikon_NASA_F4" title="Nikon NASA F4">Nikon NASA F4</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:NASA" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:NASA"><b>Commons</b></a></li></ul>

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